The axe was often the choice of the poorest man in the Viking age. Even the lowliest farm had to have a wood axe (right) for cutting and splitting wood. In desperation, a poor man could pick up the farm axe and use it in a fight.

Axes meant for battle were designed a bit differently than farm axes. The photo to the left shows two reproduction axes based on 10^th century finds, while the photo on the right shows a historic 10^th century axe head. Axe heads were made of iron and were single edged.

A wide variety of axe head shapes were used in the Viking age. The sketch to the right shows three different 11^th century axe heads, while the photo to the left shows three earlier axe heads.

In the early part of the Viking era, the cutting edge was generally 7 to 15cm (3-6in) long, while later, axes became much larger. The cutting edge of the largest of the axe heads shown to the right is 22cm (9in) long. The edge of this axe is made of hardened steel welded to the iron head. The join line is clearly visible in the sketch and in the historical axe head. The steel permitted the axe to hold a better edge than iron would have allowed.

Some axe heads were elaborately decorated with inlays of precious metals, notably the Mammen axe head. The head is decorated on every flat surface with inlays of gold and silver and was found in a rich grave that dates from the year 971.

Typically, axeheads had a wedge-shaped cross section. The cross section of the head near the edge was sometimes diamond shape, which provided for greater strength for a given weight of iron. (A modern reproduction is shown in the near left photo, while a photo of a historic axe head with that diamond edge profile is shown to the right.)

Fóstbræðra saga chapter 23 tells of a special axe made by Bjarni for Þormóðr, which was hammered all the way out to the edge with no obstructions, resulting in a very sharp blade.

Some axeheads had very thin, elegant cross-sections. (A reproduction is shown in the middle left and a historic axe far left, all on similar scales). This axe is too thin and delicate for splitting wood; this axe is meant for splitting skulls.

Later in the Viking era, axe heads became much larger, with crescent shaped edges 22 to 45cm (9-18in) long. These axes were called breið-øx (broad axe).

Thick, wedge shaped axe heads (left) were made as a single piece, with the eye (the hole for the haft) punched out with a drift. The thin blades show evidence of having been folded around what would eventually become the eye.

The photo to the right shows two historical Viking age axe heads. The axe head in the foreground shows evidence of having been folded around the eye, while the thick axe head in the background had the eye punched out with a drift.

The axe haft was made of wood and was as long as 1m (40in) long. However, the haft was sized for the intended use of the axe and to balance the axe head. Axes with smaller heads had shorter hafts and were used one handed, while longer hafted weapons were used two handed. Both of the reproduction axes shown to the right are nicely balanced, despite the obvious difference in the length of their hafts.

At one time, my opinion was that the axe, being poorly balanced, was harder to control than a well balanced weapon like a sword. However, recent experiences have forced me to change my opinion.

The photos show a 12^th century axe. The head and haft weigh only 770g (1.7 lb.), less than some swords. In the hand, it's beautifully balanced, fast, and is easily directed towards the target. It's hard to claim that an axe is brutish or sluggish after experiencing something as well balanced as this example.

One advantage of an axe over other edged weapons is that all the force of the blow is concentrated into a small section of the blade, so the axe has enough power to punch through a helmet or mail.

The curved shape of the head allows the axe to be used for a variety of tricks. It can be used to hook an opponent's ankle, throwing him off balance and onto the ground (right). The identical trick shows up in later combat manuals, such as Meyer (left).

The axe head can be hooked over other body parts, such as the neck, to compel a person to move in a direction he doesn't wish to go. Chapter 22 of Sturlu saga describes how Þorsteinn hooked one of Sturla's men with his axe and dragged him over to where he could be stabbed.

The pointed "horns" at each end of the blade (öxarhyrna) were kept sharp so they could be used offensively, as was done by Kolbeinn in chapter 5 of Grænlendinga þáttur. He drove the horn of his axe into Þórð's throat, killing him. The horns can also be used for slashing attacks, such as across the belly.

The later combat manuals teach that the butt end of long-hafted weapons can be used offensively. Some of these tricks seem directly applicable to the Viking axe. When two combatants have closed the distance, it is possible to strike or wrench with the butt of the haft, while simultaneously defending against the opponent's attack. While an attack with the butt end is not likely to be lethal, it is certainly likely to distract an opponent.

It seems unlikely that axes were routinely used as throwing weapons. One of the few example from the sagas where an axe was thrown is in chapter 33 of Harðar saga og Hólmverja. In a battle, Þorvaldr drove a spear through Sigurðr, who had been fighting with an axe. Sigurðr threw his axe at Þorvaldr, hitting him in the head. They both fell down dead. The sense of the story is that the axe was Sigurð's normal battle axe, rather than a specialized throwing axe.

In chapter 64 of Laxdæla saga, Helgi Hardbeinsson received a serious wound in a fight. Turning to the others, he said, "This old fellow still dares to face others," and he threw his wood axe at Þorgils, causing a serious wound.

The battle at Stiklastaðir (which occurred on 29-July-1030) is described in chapter 226 of Óláfs saga helgi. The saga says that large numbers of armed men fought on each side. Men in the front rank used their swords, while those in the next rank thrust with their spears. Men in the rear shot arrows and javelins and threw stones and hand-axes (handöx) at the opposite side.

The historic axe head shown to the left resembles Frankish throwing axes that predate the Viking age. Perhaps some of these axes were still in use and found their way to Norse lands in the Viking era.

Other tricks with axes are described in the sagas. In chapter 62 of Eyrbyggja saga, Þrándr leapt up and hooked the head of his axe over the wall of a fortification at the farm at Eyrr (shown to the right as it appears today). He pulled himself up by his axe handle into the fortification and cut off Hrafn's arm with his axe. The story doesn't describe the details of the fortification (virki).

Fortifications were entered by raising a man on his shield using spear-points (left), as described in chapter 5 of Gull-Þóris saga. In that case, the fortification was probably wood, since after being raised, Þórir dug his axe into the wall to pull himself up over the top.

Borgarvirki is a different kind of fortification located in north Iceland and is shown to the right as it appears today. It was built during the saga age in a natural stone bowl. Inside the bowl are the ruins of huts and a well. It's not certain who built it or what its intended purpose was, but whoever controlled it had a nearly impregnable stronghold with extended views in all directions.

The sketch to the right shows a wooden fortification that has at least some elements consistent with the fortifications described in the sagas, including a rampart at the top of the fortification from where combatants could hurl missiles into the combatants outside. In the battle at Eyrr described above, Óspakur repeated went out onto the fortification to hurl stones at Snorri's men. While thus exposed, Snorri threw a spear at Óspakur, wounding him so that he fell out of the fortification where Snorri could kill him.

We know little of the details of combat techniques used by Vikings when they fought with axes. Many of the later medieval combat manuals teach the use of the halberd, the pollaxe, and other staff weapons. So far, this material has not been very helpful for understanding the techniques of Viking age axes.

Halberds can be used defensively to parry incoming attacks. Some of the defensive techniques taught for the halberd don't adopt well to Viking age axes because of the differences between the two weapons. Yet, we know from the sagas that axes were used to parry incoming blows.

Yet some parries taught in the later medieval manuals are directly applicable to Viking axes. Meyer and others teach an overhead parry with the halberd that works very well with a two-handed Viking axe.

Pictorial sources also teach something about axe techniques. For example, images from the Bayeux tapestry (left) show combatants using their axes two-handed, but left-handed. Thus, the blow comes in on the undefended side of their opponent.

A possible response to this kind of attack is illustrated later in this page.

The sagas say that axe hafts were sometimes wrapped with iron or other metals to reduce the possibility that the haft would break when used to parry edged weapons, or when otherwise stressed. The historical axe shown to the left dates from after the end of the Viking age, but shows how axe hafts might have been wrapped in the Viking age. A detail of the wrap is shown to the right.

The haft is probably not original, but it is certainly ancient. The bend near the head is clearly intentional, part of the design of the weapon. The bend helps maximize the transfer of power from arm, shoulder, and upper body to the contact point of the edge with its target. The weapon jumps into the hand and becomes a natural extension of the arm.

It's highly likely that the haft was made from wood that naturally took that bend. The grain of such a piece of wood would follow the bend, resulting in a very strong haft.

Some sword and shield techniques can be applied a one-handed axe (right). The sword and the one-handed axe both have similar reach (left), and many tricks described in the article on sword and shield technique translate directly to the one-handed axe.

This approach fails to take advantage of the shape of the axe head and misses many of the hooking, pulling, and wrenching tricks that are clearly possible with an axe.

Blue (on the left) is armed with a one-handed axe and a shield. Red (on the right) uses a two-handed axe, which serves for both offense and defense. The combatants begin at a distance that might seem very far apart, yet the long reach of the two-handed axe means that Red can be within reach of Blue with only a single step.

Red takes the initiative and delivers a powerful overhead attack to Blue's head or neck, hoping to end the fight quickly. If Blue merely defends passively with his shield, Red's axe will likely pass through the shield (as is demonstrated in the article on shields) as well as through Blue's helmet and skull (as is suggested by the sagas).

Blue renders Red's attack completely ineffectual by running in under the weapon. Red's axe is too long to do any useful work, and Blue safely stops it with his shield. Blue attacks to the leg or other available target.

Recap: Red makes a powerful overhead attack to Blue. Blue avoids the threat by coming in under the attack.

Red's overhead attack is a fake. As Blue brings his shield up to defend, Red does a volte step out and back, rotating around his right foot. This technique moves Red's body and leg out and away from Blue's attack, while putting Red in a good position for an attack to Blue.

Red retargets Blue's forward leg, attacking to the knee. Red's body is far enough out of range that Blue has no ready targets.

Recap: Red begins a fake attack to Blue's head, but steps around and cuts to his leg.

Blue, sensing that the head attack might be a fake, is prepared for that possibility. As Red cuts to Blue's leg, Blue brings his leg back, out of range of the attack. He needn't put his weight on the foot; he need only get it out of the way as Red's axe swings by. Blue brings his axe haft down to block, in case it's needed.

After Red's axe passes, Blue brings his leg back into position and his shield follows Red's axe to the inside, to provide protection should Red try to initiate a follow-up attack.

Meanwhile, Blue, using the momentum already developed, brings his axe up and over his shield hand for an attack to Red's head or neck.

Recap: Red's attack to Blue's leg is thwarted by Blue's briefly stepping back to remove the target.

Red uses the momentum of his axe to bring it up for an attack with the horn or edge to Blue's face. Blue follows with his shield, defending against Red's shifting attack.

As his shield comes up, Blue tilts his shield backwards, both to provide additional protection to his head, and to allow him good visibility of what Red is doing.

Red carries his axe off to the side to prepare for the next attack. Blue continues to follow with his shield. Red can't see that Blue has brought his axe up behind his shield for another attack. As soon as Blue's shield clears, he's ready to attack to Red's head or neck, an attack that appears to come out of nowhere to the unprepared Red.

Recap: Despite Red's efforts to raise his axe to target Blue's head, Blue still was still able to attack Red's head.

This time, Red is a bit more prepared. As Red brings his axe up, and Blue follows with his shield, Red expects something might be developing behind that shield. Red reverses the axe in his hands to prepare for an overhead parry.

As Blue's shield clears, Red is ready for Blue's attack from behind the shield. Red steps forward and parries the attack with his haft.

Simultaneously, Red is in a good position to drive the edge or horns of his axe into Blue's face to give him a very close shave.

Recap: Red prepares to defend against Blue's attack with an overhead parry, and he plans to follow up with an attack to the face.

Blue doesn't stick around for the shave. When he senses that Red is prepared to parry, Blue sees no more useful work he can do. He retreats with a clearing cut, stepping back while cutting to the space between the combatants. The cut isn't expected to connect, but it makes it less likely that Red will try to follow as Blue retreats.

Red isn't keen to let Blue go and takes advantage of the long haft of his axe. He follows Blue's withdrawal with a thrust with the horn of his axe, an attack that has a good chance of connecting if Blue doesn't bring his shield to the center to defend against the attack.

Comment: As illustrated here, Red's thrust is very half-hearted at best. A more energetic Red would probably change his grip and step in a way to increase the length of the thrust. Additionally, it's clear that Red has many options at this point to prevent Blue from withdrawing.

Blue makes another clearing cut, and Red steps back into a ward.

Comment: As illustrated here, Blue's withdrawal is inadequate; he's still within range of Red's long-hafted axe.

Sources such as the Bayeux tapestry (left) suggest that two-handed axes could be used left-handed. A left-handed attack against an opponent armed with sword and shield comes in on his right, undefended side, where his shield can provide no usable defense.

How does a combatant respond to this kind of attack? The later medieval manuals seem to be silent.

At first glance, this attack would seem to be devastating. The opponent has no defense on the side where the attack comes in. Our attempts to bring the shield to the inside to mount a defense were hopelessly ineffectual. Bringing the shield to the inside limits the mobility of the opponent's weapon, and brings his shield too close to his body. It is far too easy for the combatant with the axe to run in and bind his opponent's shield to his body.

Instead, the opponent must use what he has available on that side. One approach that makes sense is to use the weapon as the defense, controlling the incoming axe and passing it to the shield so the weapon can then be used for an attack. One possible interpretation of this technique is shown in the following speculative sequence.

Brown (on the right) is armed with a two-handed axe. Blue (on the left) is armed with a one-handed axe and shield. Brown adopts a left-handed ward.

Blue carries Brown's ax over his head, controlling the axe by keeping it hooked so Brown can't easily withdraw it to attack elsewhere. Blue carries Brown's axe past the shield...

...and transfers defensive control of Brown's axe to the shield. By carrying the axe overhead, Blue remains safe and retains control over Brown's axe as Blue passes it from axe to shield.

Blue steps in strongly on his left foot and releases Brown's haft...

...to deliver an attack to Brown's head, neck, or upper body with his axe. Blue continues to control Brown's axe with his shield.

Additionally, as Blue steps forward to deliver his attack, he can crush Brown's hand or fingers with the edge of his shield as the shield slides up Brown's axe haft. Brown's axe head is behind Blue, where it is no threat.

If Brown tries to step back to put his axe in play again, Blue can easily step forward to continuing pressing his attack.

When an attack comes in, the opponent can use a Krumphauw (crooked cut) as taught by Meyer, Mair, Ringeck, and Talhoffer (left) for the longsword. The opponent steps out from under the attack and uses his weapon to suppress the attack (top), following up with a quick attack to the head (bottom).

A combatant armed with sword (or one-handed axe) and shield can use this same technique against a two-handed axe attack on either side, suppressing the incoming attack and following up with a quick attack to the head or neck.